Pashto

Greetings, farewells, politeness expressions, names, and simple personal introductions.

Independent personal pronouns and present copular forms in identification and description.

Masculine and feminine nouns, natural gender, grammatical gender, and common gender patterns.

Definite meaning without articles, indefinite expressions, demonstratives, and context-based reference.

Immediate and extended family members, relationships, marital status, and basic descriptions of people.

Cardinal numbers, counting objects, basic quantities, prices, ages, and phone numbers.

Question words, yes-no questions, alternative questions, and short affirmative and negative answers.

Regular present-tense forms for actions, states, routines, and general truths.

High-frequency irregular verbs and their present stems, endings, and everyday uses.

Positive and negative statements with verbs, copulas, commands, and existential expressions.

Days, months, seasons, clock time, dates, schedules, and expressions of duration and frequency.

Adjective position, masculine and feminine forms, singular and plural agreement, and basic descriptions.

Rooms, furniture, household objects, living arrangements, and describing where things are located.

Possession with د constructions, possessive pronouns, ownership questions, and relationships between nouns.

Daily activities, personal care, recurring actions, and sequencing a typical day.

Simple commands, prohibitions, polite instructions, and imperative forms of common verbs.

Basic prepositions, postpositions, circumpositions, spatial relations, and common fixed combinations.

Common foods, drinks, ingredients, meals, tastes, and preferences.

Ordering meals, requesting items, asking about ingredients, describing dishes, and handling the bill.

Clothing, colors, sizes, materials, appearance, and describing what someone is wearing.

Shops, products, prices, quantities, bargaining, payment, returns, and availability.

Singular and plural noun patterns, regular endings, irregular plurals, and plural agreement.

Cardinal and ordinal numbers, approximate quantities, fractions, percentages, and distributive expressions.

Existence, availability, presence, absence, possession, and location with شته and نشته.

Neighborhood places, public facilities, landmarks, local services, and describing surroundings.

Asking for and giving directions, routes, distances, landmarks, and destination expressions.

Vehicles, fares, routes, stations, tickets, departures, arrivals, and local travel arrangements.

Weather conditions, temperatures, forecasts, seasons, and describing changes in the environment.

Body parts, physical conditions, common symptoms, pain, and basic health needs.

Making appointments, describing symptoms, following treatment instructions, and obtaining medicine.

Past forms of intransitive verbs, completed events, motion, arrival, departure, and changes of state.

Oblique subjects, object agreement, and split-ergative patterns with past transitive verbs.

Direct and oblique noun forms used with past subjects, adpositions, possession, and reference.

Weak pronouns for possession, participants, and objects, including مې, دې, یې, مو, and combinations.

Second-position clitics, ordering of multiple clitics, and placement after focused or initial constituents.

Travel planning, destinations, accommodation, reservations, luggage, and common travel problems.

Perfective and imperfective stems, completed versus ongoing viewpoints, and aspectual contrasts.

Ongoing, repeated, backgrounded, and habitual past actions with imperfective past forms.

Completed past events with perfective stems, sequence boundaries, and event-focused narration.

Narrative sequencing, time markers, background information, and connected accounts of past events.

Common animals, plants, landscapes, natural features, and descriptions of rural and urban environments.

Sports, games, exercise, hobbies, interests, and discussing ability and frequency.

Invitations, acceptance, refusal, arrangements, suggested times, and changing or canceling plans.

Future reference with به, present forms, time expressions, predictions, intentions, and scheduled events.

Wants, needs, intentions, preferences, and plans with غوښتل and related constructions.

Ability, possibility, permission, and inability with modal verbs and infinitive-based constructions.

Requests, favors, offers, permission seeking, and degrees of directness and politeness.

Forming comparisons, equality, inequality, superlatives, intensifiers, and measurements.

Frequency, manner, time, place, certainty, and degree adverbs with flexible sentence placement.

Word order in neutral statements, object placement, adverb placement, and common constituent patterns.

Present participles, past participles, infinitives, verbal nouns, and their core sentence functions.

Present perfect constructions for prior events, current relevance, experience, and resulting states.

Past perfect constructions for events preceding another past reference point.

Life events, achievements, memorable experiences, duration, and changes over time.

Feelings, moods, emotional reactions, temperament, and expressions of sympathy and encouragement.

Physical features, personality traits, behavior, resemblance, and detailed descriptions of individuals.

Reflexive forms, reciprocal meanings, self-directed actions, and mutual relationships.

Direct objects, indirect participants, recipients, beneficiaries, and argument marking across tense and aspect.

Count nouns, mass nouns, measure phrases, containers, portions, and quantity agreement.

Telephone calls, identifying callers, leaving messages, checking information, and handling connection problems.

Digital devices, applications, messaging, internet access, settings, and solving common technical problems.

School subjects, courses, classrooms, study routines, qualifications, and discussing learning goals.

Knowledge, memory, comprehension, belief, doubt, and mental-state expressions.

Subordinate clauses with چې for statements, beliefs, perceptions, desires, and reported content.

Relative clauses with چې, identifying and nonidentifying information, and reference to omitted arguments.

Coordinating words for addition, contrast, choice, sequence, result, and explanation.

Time clauses expressing before, after, while, until, whenever, and simultaneous events.

Reasons, results, purposes, and consequences with causal and purposive clause patterns.

Present subjunctive forms in wishes, purposes, commands, possibilities, and dependent clauses.

Past and perfect subjunctive forms for unreal, uncertain, desired, or retrospectively evaluated events.

Conditional sentences for facts, likely outcomes, possibilities, and general cause-and-effect relations.

Hypothetical present and future situations, imagined outcomes, and unlikely possibilities.

Counterfactual past situations, missed possibilities, regret, and alternative outcomes.

Advice, obligation, necessity, recommendations, warnings, and moral or practical expectations.

Formal and informal commands, third-person directives, softened imperatives, and negative injunctions.

Verbal predicates built from nouns or adjectives with کول, کېدل, and related light verbs.

Transitive and intransitive verb pairs expressing actions, processes, and changes of state.

Causing, making, allowing, and helping someone perform an action through causative constructions.

Passive forms, omitted agents, backgrounded agents, and result-focused descriptions.

Prefixed verb formations, separable elements, aspectual changes, and stem behavior in conjugation.

Motion verbs, source and destination marking, direction, path, arrival, departure, and return.

Position, placement, posture, handling objects, and contrasts among standing, sitting, lying, and putting.

Personal finances, saving, borrowing, payments, household expenses, and basic banking services.

Housing searches, rent, utilities, repairs, household problems, and communication with service providers.

Accidents, danger, urgent requests, emergency services, missing belongings, and reporting immediate problems.

Public offices, forms, identity documents, applications, permissions, and routine administrative procedures.

Rules, rights, responsibilities, prohibitions, permissions, and consequences in everyday civic contexts.

Agreement, disagreement, partial agreement, objections, concessions, and respectful challenges.

Personal opinions, reasons, examples, qualifications, and degrees of certainty or commitment.

Claims, supporting reasons, counterarguments, evidence, conclusions, and structured persuasion.

Direct and indirect reports of statements, questions, commands, requests, and changes in reference.

Information questions embedded within larger clauses, indirect inquiries, and polite information requests.

Rhetorical, echo, leading, tag-like, and confirmation-seeking questions.

Topic placement, contrastive focus, emphasis, constituent fronting, and marked word-order choices.

Ellipsis, omitted pronouns, recoverable arguments, short responses, and avoidance of unnecessary repetition.

Reference across sentences using pronouns, demonstratives, repetition, lexical substitution, and bridging expressions.

Connectors for sequencing, contrast, elaboration, exemplification, reformulation, concession, and conclusion.

Conversation openings, turn management, interruption, clarification, repair, topic changes, and closings.

Formal and informal address, honorific expressions, respectful plurals, social distance, and situational politeness.

Neutral, intimate, respectful, formal, colloquial, and elevated choices in vocabulary and grammar.

Common greetings, requests, apologies, thanks, refusals, condolences, congratulations, and context-sensitive formulas.

Apologies, explanations, responsibility, forgiveness, complaints, and repairing misunderstandings or offense.

Descriptions of products, services, experiences, problems, advantages, disadvantages, and recommendations.

Events, processes, causes, effects, priorities, and practical responses related to the natural environment.

Scientific concepts, observation, classification, measurement, hypothesis, cause, and technical explanation.

Health habits, nutrition, exercise, prevention, mental well-being, and discussing risks and benefits.

Friendship, trust, conflict, support, boundaries, and changes in personal relationships.

Communities, institutions, social groups, inclusion, inequality, cooperation, and collective concerns.

Government institutions, public decisions, representation, laws, services, and neutral discussion of civic issues.

Identity, belonging, values, personal background, multilingualism, and respectful discussion of differences.

Ethical principles, duties, consequences, fairness, competing values, and moral dilemmas.

Facts, assumptions, inference, probability, certainty, doubt, and evaluation of supporting evidence.

Possibility, necessity, expectation, obligation, willingness, and nuanced modal meanings across time.

Evidential meanings based on direct observation, report, inference, memory, and uncertainty.

Actions viewed as beginning, continuing, repeating, stopping, completing, or approaching completion.

Habitual, iterative, durative, momentary, and generic event meanings beyond basic tense contrasts.

Temporal perspective, sequence of tenses, shifted reference points, and relationships among multiple events.

Full case paradigms for masculine and feminine nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals, and irregular forms.

Agreement with complex noun phrases, coordinated nouns, quantified expressions, honorific subjects, and ergative objects.

Numeral constructions, counted-noun forms, agreement variation, measurement phrases, and complex quantities.

Possessive chains, nested د phrases, relational nouns, part-whole relations, and avoidance of ambiguity.

Expanded circumpositional patterns for location, direction, cause, purpose, comparison, exception, and topic.

Sentences containing multiple complement, relative, adverbial, conditional, and coordinated clauses.

Reduced clauses, participial modifiers, infinitival complements, and compact expression of related events.

Nominalized actions, qualities, states, and propositions used in dense formal expression.

New nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs formed through productive prefixes, suffixes, and category changes.

Compound nouns, compound adjectives, lexicalized verb combinations, and interpretation of unfamiliar compounds.

Repeated words, paired expressions, sound-symbolic forms, intensification, distribution, and approximation.

Arabic- and Persian-derived vocabulary, adapted grammatical behavior, plural patterns, and register differences.

Literal and figurative senses, conventional metaphors, semantic extension, and context-dependent interpretation.

High-frequency idioms, fixed combinations, collocations, and restrictions on word choice.

Common sayings, compressed advice, generalized comparisons, and appropriate interpretation without literal readings.

Synonym choice, antonymy, near-equivalence, connotation, intensity, and subtle semantic distinctions.

Words with multiple meanings, contextual disambiguation, structural ambiguity, and deliberate double meanings.

Scope of negatives, negative pronouns, multiple negative elements, and distinctions between partial and total negation.

Focus-sensitive particles meaning only, even, also, especially, exactly, and at least.

Approximation, limitation, inclusion, exception, emphasis, and scalar meanings expressed through particles and phrases.

Hedging, cautious claims, softened criticism, uncertainty, and calibrated confidence.

Emphasis, insistence, correction, contrast, reinforcement, and strong commitment to a claim.

Implication, indirect requests, presupposition, shared assumptions, and meanings inferred from context.

Sarcasm, irony, understatement, exaggeration, playful ambiguity, and context-dependent humorous effects.

Sensitive subjects, euphemisms, respectful alternatives, insults, emotional force, and boundaries of acceptable usage.

Detailed accounts with scene setting, pacing, viewpoint, climax, evaluation, and shifts between foreground and background.

Precise descriptions of people, places, objects, processes, and sensory or spatial relationships.

Definitions, classifications, comparisons, examples, causal chains, and step-by-step explanations of complex ideas.

Persuasive framing, rhetorical questions, repetition, parallelism, contrast, appeals, and strategic concession.

Formal openings, requests, explanations, complaints, acknowledgments, closings, and appropriate levels of deference.

Dense informational style, abstract nouns, impersonal constructions, qualification, and structured presentation of concepts.

Concise summaries, paraphrased propositions, distinctions between main and supporting points, and preservation of stance.

Precise definitions, boundaries between related concepts, exceptions, counterexamples, and resolution of misunderstandings.

Negotiating proposals, conditions, priorities, compromises, concessions, and mutually acceptable outcomes.

Leading discussions, allocating turns, returning to the topic, synthesizing viewpoints, and resolving procedural disagreement.

Dense combinations of clitics, oblique forms, agreement, aspect, and word-order variation in extended sentences.

Ergative alignment across tense, aspect, complex predicates, pronouns, coordinated objects, and exceptional agreement patterns.

Irregular stems, suppletive forms, defective paradigms, uncommon participles, and exceptional auxiliary combinations.

Marked inversions, extraposition, discontinuous phrases, parenthetical material, and stylistically motivated ordering.

Vocabulary and grammar differences among major Pashto varieties and their relationship to widely used standard forms.

Variation between colloquial and formal Pashto in morphology, clitic use, vocabulary, contraction, and sentence structure.

Alternative accepted spellings, regional written forms, borrowed conventions, and choices favoring broad intelligibility.

Fine distinctions in politeness, authority, solidarity, emotional distance, indirectness, and interpersonal positioning.

Shifts in viewpoint, time, place, person, and reference when quoting, retelling, or reframing another perspective.

Managing long stretches of discourse through thematic progression, reference chains, lexical cohesion, and structural signaling.

Compact, natural expression through idiomatic syntax, collocational precision, controlled ellipsis, and avoidance of literal transfer.

Creative manipulation of register, metaphor, rhythm, parallel structure, implication, and stylistic contrast for precise effects.