Filipino

Ang-marked nouns, personal names, and sentence topics.

Ako, ikaw, siya, tayo, kami, kayo, and sila, including inclusive and exclusive “we.”

Cardinal numbers, counting, quantities, prices, and simple calculations.

Na and -ng linkers connecting modifiers, nouns, adjectives, and numbers.

Ito, iyan, iyon and their location, direction, and possession forms.

Family members, relationships, marital status, and household roles.

Ng-marked nouns, possessors, quantities, and nonfocused participants.

Sa-marked locations, destinations, recipients, and indirect participants.

May, mayroon, wala, and possession or existence statements.

Sino, ano, saan, kailan, bakit, paano, alin, and magkano in information questions.

Oo, hindi, wala, and common patterns for affirmative and negative answers.

Time expressions, clock time, days, months, dates, and schedules.

Common activities, habits, schedules, and sequencing a typical day.

Basic -um- actor-voice verbs across completed, ongoing, and contemplated aspects.

Basic mag- actor-voice verbs for actions, activities, and routines.

Completed, ongoing, contemplated, and recently completed viewpoints in Filipino verbs.

Nouns, plural marker mga, classifiers, and plural meanings without obligatory marking.

Descriptive predicates, adjective placement, and adjective–noun linking.

Common foods, drinks, ingredients, meals, flavors, and hunger or thirst.

Ordering dishes, making requests, asking about ingredients, and handling the bill.

Polite requests and commands using paki-, pakisuyo, maaari, and imperative forms.

Rooms, furniture, appliances, household objects, and descriptions of living spaces.

Locations and spatial relations using nasa, narito, nariyan, naroon, and sa phrases.

Body parts, physical descriptions, basic symptoms, and states of health.

Ma- adjective and stative formations describing qualities, feelings, and conditions.

Gusto, ayaw, nais, and ibig for preferences, wishes, and intentions.

Clothing, footwear, accessories, colors, sizes, fit, and appearance.

Prices, quantities, sizes, payment, bargaining, and asking for available items.

Adjective intensity and comparison using mas, pinaka-, kasing-, sing-, and di-gasino.

Common adverbs of manner, frequency, time, place, and intensity.

Na, pa, lang, muna, naman, pala, yata, and other frequent enclitic particles.

Weather conditions, forecasts, seasons, temperature, and everyday environmental descriptions.

Natural features, plants, animals, landscapes, and outdoor conditions.

Transport types, fares, routes, stops, tickets, and common travel exchanges.

Asking for and giving routes using directions, landmarks, distances, and destinations.

Origins, destinations, paths, and spatial reference with mula, galing, patungo, and papunta.

Patient-focused -in- and -hin verbs with ang-marked affected objects.

Patient-focused verbs formed with reduplication and infix or suffix changes across aspects.

Location-focused -an and -han verbs for places, recipients, and affected surfaces.

I- verbs highlighting transferred, moved, or applied themes.

The relationship among verb voice, ang phrases, ng phrases, and sa phrases.

Hobbies, games, collections, creative activities, and leisure preferences.

Sports, exercise, equipment, rules, scores, and physical activity.

Appointments, availability, invitations, acceptances, refusals, and changing plans.

Future intentions and contemplated actions using aspect, time expressions, and planning verbs.

Completed events, past time expressions, and sequences of earlier actions.

Experiences using aspectual constructions, nakaranas, nasubukan, and time references.

Kaya, maaari, puwede, marunong, and related expressions of ability and permission.

Dapat, kailangan, kailangang, and kinailangan for obligation and necessity.

Bawal, hindi maaari, huwag, and other forms for prohibition and negative commands.

Reasons, purposes, results, and explanations using dahil, kasi, para, kaya, and upang.

Coordinating ideas with at, o, pero, ngunit, subalit, pati, saka, and ni.

When, while, before, after, until, and since clauses using nang, noong, habang, bago, matapos, and mula nang.

Real and possible conditions using kung, kapag, pag, basta, and sakali.

Emotions, moods, reactions, interpersonal feelings, and degrees of emotional intensity.

Likes, dislikes, favorites, comparisons, and reasons for personal choices.

Agreement, disagreement, partial agreement, correction, and polite contradiction.

Phone calls, voice messages, connection problems, and arranging follow-up contact.

Digital devices, applications, online actions, accounts, settings, and common technical problems.

School subjects, classes, schedules, study activities, qualifications, and educational institutions.

Occupations, responsibilities, schedules, employment status, and general work-related vocabulary.

Personal qualities, behavior, habits, strengths, weaknesses, and social impressions.

Life stages, friendship, romance, partnership, separation, and changing relationships.

Reflexive meanings with sarili and reciprocal actions using one another constructions.

Accidental, involuntary, and resultative ma- or na- verbs.

Maka- and makapag- formations for capability, opportunity, and successful completion.

Mang-, man-, and pang- alternations involving nasal assimilation and habitual activities.

Pa- and magpa- constructions expressing causation, permission, and arranging actions.

Ipa- patient-voice causatives highlighting what is caused, requested, or arranged.

Maki-, makipag-, and pakikipag- forms for participation, cooperation, and social interaction.

Ipag- and pag-...-an forms highlighting beneficiaries, purposes, and directed activities.

Instrument-focused forms and pang- words for tools, uses, and functions.

Root selection, affix choice, meaning changes, and conventional verb–voice combinations.

Full, short, and enclitic forms of ang-, ng-, and sa-series pronouns.

Pronoun placement, combinations, and natural ordering after predicates and particles.

Ordering combinations such as na, pa, ba, naman, pala, daw, din, lang, and yata.

Din/rin, daw/raw, dito/rito, and related alternations governed by preceding sounds.

Attribution and hearsay using daw, raw, umano, ayon sa, and related evidential expressions.

Direct and indirect reports with sabi, sinabi, tanong, ayon, and complement clauses.

Commands, requests, and questions shifted into indirect discourse.

Relative clauses built around voice choice, participant marking, and linked modifiers.

Headless relative constructions referring to people, things, places, and manners.

Clause complements after verbs of saying, thinking, knowing, perceiving, and wanting.

Kung, na, para, and question-word clauses functioning as sentence participants.

Ay-inverted clauses for topic presentation, contrast, definition, and formal organization.

Canonical predicate-first order, marked inversions, fronting, and participant placement.

Topic, focus, contrast, definiteness, and information status in Filipino sentence organization.

Emphasis using nga, mismo, talaga, kaya, ba, naman, and focused constituent placement.

Possessive pronouns, noun possessors, compound possession, and ownership relationships.

Cardinal, ordinal, distributive, fractional, multiplicative, and approximate quantities.

Counting words, containers, measures, dimensions, weight, distance, and temperature.

Money, banking, budgeting, borrowing, payment methods, and personal financial decisions.

Travel arrangements, accommodation, reservations, documents, luggage, and itinerary changes.

Symptoms, injuries, medication, treatment, appointments, and communicating with health services.

Accidents, hazards, urgent requests, warnings, evacuation, and contacting emergency services.

Public offices, applications, identification, forms, requirements, and accessing services.

Housing searches, rent, utilities, repairs, neighbors, and property descriptions.

Ingredients, preparation methods, kitchen tools, quantities, substitutions, and instructions.

Cleaning, maintenance, repairs, chores, and assigning household responsibilities.

Parenting, caregiving, childcare routines, dependency, and family responsibilities.

Traffic, routes, delays, vehicle problems, regulations, and travel disruptions.

Environmental problems, conservation, resources, waste, pollution, and sustainability.

Physical processes, materials, measurements, experiments, causes, and observable results.

Health habits, nutrition, exercise, sleep, stress, and preventive care.

Community facilities, local concerns, shared resources, and neighborhood coordination.

Rights, responsibilities, rules, government institutions, elections, and civic participation.

Laws, regulations, permissions, violations, complaints, evidence, and legal obligations.

Supply, demand, prices, income, inequality, growth, and everyday economic concepts.

Identity, inclusion, discrimination, accessibility, fairness, and social relationships.

Pag- nominalizations for actions and processes, plus derived nouns for actors, objects, and locations.

Productive use of affixes to derive nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs from shared roots.

Full, partial, and combined reduplication for aspect, plurality, intensity, distribution, and approximation.

Compound words, lexicalized combinations, semantic relationships, and spelling conventions.

Affix alternations, consonant changes, vowel changes, and stress-related distinctions in derived forms.

Transitive, intransitive, ditransitive, experiential, and locative patterns in the Filipino voice system.

Adding, omitting, or rearranging participants while preserving natural voice and case marking.

Actor, patient, location, beneficiary, instrument, cause, and theme as alternative clause pivots.

Voice choices based on definiteness, discourse continuity, affectedness, and speaker perspective.

Dynamic and stative interpretations, changes of state, resulting conditions, and property expressions.

Actions in progress, repeated actions, habitual events, temporary situations, and interruptions.

Katatapos, kararating, kagagawa, and related recently completed constructions.

Simultaneous, consecutive, interrupted, and overlapping events in extended accounts.

Hypothetical, counterfactual, and unreal conditions using sana, kung, sakali, and modal combinations.

Sana, dapat sana, maaari sanang, and related forms for wishes, regrets, and unrealized possibilities.

Likelihood, uncertainty, inference, and speculation using baka, marahil, siguro, tila, and wari.

Certainty, doubt, evidence, assumption, and commitment to the truth of a statement.

Promises, threats, offers, refusals, commitments, and expressions of willingness.

Advice, recommendations, warnings, encouragement, and tactful criticism.

Permission, obligation, necessity, possibility, and willingness across formal and informal contexts.

Politeness through pronouns, particles, indirectness, softeners, titles, and respectful formulations.

Po and opo, respectful reference, deferential requests, and shifts in interpersonal stance.

Casual reductions, conversational particles, familiar expressions, and everyday informal constructions.

Formal vocabulary, impersonal constructions, precise connectors, and institutionally appropriate phrasing.

Register shifts based on audience, relationship, purpose, sensitivity, and degree of formality.

Taglish patterns, borrowing, code-switching constraints, and selecting Filipino or English equivalents.

Spanish- and English-derived vocabulary, adaptation patterns, semantic shifts, and native alternatives.

Regional and social variation in common Filipino words, constructions, and conversational choices.

Opening, maintaining, shifting, repairing, and closing conversational topics.

Turn-taking, interruptions, backchannels, hesitation devices, clarification, and self-correction.

Rephrasing, defining, exemplifying, checking meaning, and resolving misunderstandings.

Small talk, sensitive topics, tactful transitions, and maintaining interpersonal rapport.

Narrative orientation, event progression, climax, evaluation, and resolution.

Descriptions organized by space, importance, comparison, sensory detail, and perspective.

Processes presented through stages, conditions, materials, cautions, and expected outcomes.

Claims, reasons, evidence, examples, counterarguments, and conclusions in sustained discussion.

Cause, consequence, concession, contrast, addition, exemplification, and summary across extended discourse.

Bagaman, kahit, kahit na, gayunman, datapwat, samantalang, and other concessive or contrastive structures.

Complex causal chains using sanhi, bunga, dulot, dahilan, resulta, and related clause patterns.

References across sentences using pronouns, demonstratives, repetition, substitution, and lexical chains.

Ellipsis, omitted arguments, recoverable predicates, and context-dependent interpretation.

Discourse markers such as bale, ibig sabihin, kung tutuusin, sa madaling salita, and samakatuwid.

Framing, digression, return to topic, summarization, and transitions in long explanations.

Stance through evaluation, emphasis, distancing, alignment, and degrees of personal commitment.

Softening claims through qualifiers, approximators, impersonal phrasing, and modal expressions.

Strengthening claims through intensifiers, repetition, focus particles, and categorical formulations.

Neutral, positive, negative, humorous, dismissive, affectionate, and critical connotations.

Closely related words distinguished by register, intensity, collocation, and contextual implication.

Words with multiple meanings, context-based interpretation, and deliberate or accidental ambiguity.

Natural word partnerships, fixed combinations, verb–noun preferences, and adjective–noun pairings.

Common fixed expressions whose meanings are not fully predictable from their individual words.

Metaphor, metonymy, comparison, personification, and other figurative patterns in everyday and formal language.

Puns, understatement, exaggeration, irony, teasing, and context-sensitive humorous meanings.

Implied meanings, indirect refusals, hints, presuppositions, and context-dependent interpretation.

Speech acts performed indirectly through questions, statements, particles, and contextual cues.

Face-saving disagreement, delicate requests, apologies, complaints, and conflict de-escalation.

Detailed apologies, accountability, explanations, restitution, forgiveness, and reconciliation.

Complaints, dissatisfaction, service problems, requested remedies, and escalation with appropriate register.

Proposals, concessions, conditions, alternatives, compromise, and reaching mutual agreement.

Definitions, classifications, comparisons, examples, qualifications, and precise abstract explanation.

Dense noun phrases, layered modifiers, embedded clauses, and compressed formal expression.

Multiple levels of subordination and coordination without unclear participant reference.

Parallel structures, balanced contrasts, repetition, progression, and deliberate emphasis.

Concise expression through omission, nominalization, lexical precision, and avoidance of redundancy.

Expanding ideas through definition, exemplification, analogy, qualification, and restatement.

Changing wording, structure, register, and emphasis while preserving intended meaning.

Summarizing complex information while retaining central claims, relationships, and qualifications.

Resolving unclear pronouns, misplaced modifiers, competing voice choices, and structural ambiguity.

Fine control of aspect, voice, modality, particles, word order, and register in nuanced communication.