1. How computers turn code into action

A processor contains billions of tiny electronic switches, yet software works with useful operations such as adding numbers or loading data. Layers of organization turn simple switching into instructions, programs, graphics, and artificial intelligence.

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Processors can calculate much faster than data can arrive from main memory. Registers and caches keep frequently needed information nearby, making data location—and not just processor speed—a major factor in performance.

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A gaming computer, smartwatch, cloud server, and spacecraft computer face different constraints. Architects balance performance, power use, cost, size, heat, and reliability rather than designing one machine that is best at everything.

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Computer architecture supports work in chip design, operating systems, compilers, embedded devices, robotics, cybersecurity, and high-performance computing. Projects range from programming a tiny microcontroller to testing instruction sets, parallel processors, and energy-efficient hardware.

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Review this chapter with practice based on your mistakes.